section 1 : introduction
Thermodynamics (Greek: thermos = heat and dynamis = power) is the physics of heat, work, enthalpy, and entropy changes in relation to the spontaneity of processes. In origins, thermodynamics is the study of engines. Prior to 1698, with the invention of the Savery Engine, horses were used to "power" pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built; as the Newcomen Engine, and later the Watt Engine. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced! The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work. In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output. Hence the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born.
Thermodynamics, at present, designates the science of all transformations of matter and energy. Definitively, thermodynamics can be divided into two main branches:
Equilibrium Thermodynamics: the study of systems as they approach equilibrium.
Classical Thermodynamics – macroscopic analysis of systems
Statistical Thermodynamics – microscopic analysis of systems
Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics: the study of systems away from equilibrium.
Near-equilibrium Thermodynamics – linear analysis of irreversible processes.
Far-from-equilibrium Thermodynamics – nonlinear analysis of irreversible processes.
From this base, over the years, other variations of thermodynamics have come into their own as: chemical thermodynamics, thermal physics, atmospheric thermodynamics, economic thermodynamics, environmental thermodynamics, black hole thermodynamics, and others.
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While dealing with processes in which systems exchange matter or energy, classical thermodynamics is not concerned with the rate at which such processes take place, termed kinetics. For this reason, the use of the term "thermodynamics" usually refers to equilibrium thermodynamics. In this connection, a central concept in thermodynamics is that of quasistatic processes, which are idealized, "infinitely slow" processes. Time-dependent thermodynamic processes are studied by non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
In Thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, and as such they do not depend on the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. This means they can be applied to systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and matter transfer with the environment. Examples of this include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission around the turn of the 20th century and the current research into the thermodynamics of black holes.
It is important to remember that the laws of thermodynamics are only statistical generalizations. That is, they simply describe the tendencies of macroscopic systems. On the quantum level, the laws of thermodynamics often break down. Furthermore, as evidenced by Maxwell's demon, it is theoretically possible to specifically engineer a quantum system to break the laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics, however, i.e. the law of conservation, has become the most sound of all laws in science. Its validity has never been disproved.
source: from wikpidea
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